Types and Casting¶

Identifiers¶

Identifiers must begin with a letter [A-Za-z], an underscore or an element from the Unicode character categories Lu/Ll/Lt/Lm/Lo/Nl [con22]. The set of permissible continuation characters consists of all members of the aforementioned character sets with the addition of decimal numerals [0-9]. Identifiers may not override a reserved identifier.

Variables¶

Variables must be named according to the rules for identifiers (See Identifiers). Variables may be assigned values within a program. Variables representing any classical type can be initialized on declaration. Any classical variable or Boolean that is not explicitly initialized is undefined. Classical types can be mutually cast to one another using the typename. See Casting specifics for more details on casting.

Declaration and initialization must be done one variable at a time for both quantum and classical types. Comma seperated declaration/initialization (int x, y, z) is NOT allowed for any type. For example, to declare a set of qubits one must do

qubit q0;
qubit q1;
qubit q2;

and to declare a set of classical variables

int[32] a;
float[32] b = 5.5;
bit[3] c;
bool my_bool = false;

We use the notation s:m:f to denote the width and precision of fixed point numbers, where s is the number of sign bits, m is the number of integer bits, and f is the number of fractional bits. It is necessary to specify low-level classical representations since OpenQASM operates at the intersection of gates/analog control and digital feedback and we need to be able to explicitly transform types to cross these boundaries. Classical types are scoped to the braces within which they are declared.

Quantum types¶

Qubits¶

There is a quantum bit (qubit) type that is interpreted as a reference to a two-level subsystem of a quantum state. The statement qubit name; declares a reference to a quantum bit. These qubits are referred to as “virtual qubits” (in distinction to “physical qubits” on actual hardware; see below). The statement qubit[size] name; declares a quantum register with size qubits. Sizes must always be compile-time constant positive integers. Quantum registers are static arrays of qubits that cannot be dynamically resized.

The label name[j] refers to a qubit of this register, where $j\in \{0,1,\dots,\mathrm{size}(\mathrm{name})-1\}$ is an integer.

Note

To be compliant with the base OpenQASM 3.0 specification, an implementation is only required to allow this “quantum-register indexing” with a compile-time constant value (those with const types). Implementations are permitted to treat indexing into a quantum register with a value of non-const type as an error. Consult your compiler and hardware documentation for details.

// Valid statements

include "stdgates.inc";

qubit[5] q1;
const uint SIZE = 4;
uint runtime_u = 2;
qubit[SIZE] q2;  // Declare a 4-qubit register.

x q1[0];
z q2[SIZE - 2];  // The index operand is of type `const uint`.


// Validity is implementation-defined.

x q1[runtime_u];
// Indexing with a value with a non-`const` type (`uint`, in this case) is
// not guaranteed to be supported.

The keyword qreg is included for backwards compatibility and will be removed in the future.

Qubits are initially in an undefined state. A quantum reset operation is one way to initialize qubit states.

All qubits are global variables. Qubits cannot be declared within gates or subroutines. This simplifies OpenQASM significantly since there is no need for quantum memory management. However, it also means that users or compiler have to explicitly manage the quantum memory.

// Declare a qubit
qubit gamma;
// Declare a qubit with a Unicode name
qubit γ;
// Declare a qubit register with 20 qubits
qubit[20] qubit_array;

Physical Qubits¶

Physical qubits refer to particular hardware qubits. Therefore, they are only fully defined with respect to a target device that has a published device topology. The hardware provider determines the integer-labels associated with each qubit within the device’s topology.

While virtual qubits can be named, hardware qubits are referenced by the syntax $[NUM], where NUM is a non-negative integer. Any integer included in the published device topology is a valid physical qubit identifier. Note that this implies that physical qubit identifier indices may be non-consecutive, depending on the device.

Like virtual qubits, physical qubits are global variables, but unlike virtual qubits, they must not be declared.

Qubit parameters in a defcal declaration must be physical qubits. Calibrations are valid only for a particular set of physical qubits. See also pulse gates.

Physical qubits cannot be used in gate statements. See also gate definitions.

Physical qubits are also used in lower parts of the compilation stack when emitting physical circuits. A physical circuit is one which only references physical qubits, and every operation used in the circuit has an associated defcal, which we refer to as hardware-native gates and measurements.

// CNOT gate between physical qubits 0 and 1
CX $0, $1;
// Define the pulse-level instruction sequence for ``h`` on physical qubit 0
defcal h $0 { ... }

Physical qubit constraints¶

Physical qubits, by definition, reference particular hardware qubits. Circuit equivalence does not hold over permutations of physical qubit labels. Thus, physical qubits cannot be remapped by a compiler or hardware provider without opt-in from the programmer.

Note that while physical circuits require physical qubits, the converse need not be true. A circuit that would require routing or gate decomposition to run (i.e., does not have a defcal for every operation in the circuit) would by definition not be a physical circuit. However, physical qubits can still be used in such circuits.

For example, a program defines the H gate with the gate statement, without a corresponding defcal of H. H is therefore a supported gate, but not a hardware-native gate. The compiler can decompose the statement H $0; to hardware-native gates, while still respecting strict qubit mapping.

It is possible to write a partially-constrained program with both physical and virtual qubits. Such programs are also non-physical circuits, and may or may not be supported by compilers or hardware providers.

Classical scalar types¶

Classical bits and registers¶

There is a classical bit type that takes values 0 or 1. Classical registers are static arrays of bits. The classical registers model part of the controller state that is exposed within the OpenQASM program. The statement bit name; declares a classical bit, and or bit[size] name; declares a register of size bits. The label name[j] refers to a bit of this register, where $j\in \{0,1,\dots,\mathrm{size}(\mathrm{name})-1\}$ is an integer.

Bit registers may also be declared as creg name[size]. This is included for backwards compatibility and may be removed in the future.

For convenience, classical registers can be assigned a text string containing zeros and ones of the same length as the size of the register. It is interpreted to assign each bit of the register to corresponding value 0 or 1 in the string, where the least-significant bit is on the right.

// Declare a register of 20 bits
bit[20] bit_array;
// Declare and assign a register of bits with decimal value of 15
bit[8] name = "00001111";

Integers¶

There are n-bit signed and unsigned integers. The statements int[size] name; and uint[size] name; declare signed 1:n-1:0 and unsigned 0:n:0 integers of the given size. The sizes and the surrounding brackets can be omitted (e.g. int name;) to use a precision that is specified by the particular target architecture. Bit-level operations cannot be used on types without a specified width, and unspecified-width types are different to all specified-width types for the purposes of casting. Because register indices are integers, they can be cast from classical registers containing measurement outcomes and may only be known at run time. An n-bit classical register containing bits can also be reinterpreted as an integer, and these types can be mutually cast to one another using the type name, e.g. int[16](c). As noted, this conversion will be done assuming little-endian bit ordering. The example below demonstrates how to declare, assign and cast integer types amongst one another.

// Declare a 32-bit unsigned integer
uint[32] my_uint = 10;
// Declare a 16 bit signed integer
int[16] my_int;
my_int = int[16](my_uint);
// Declare a machine-sized integer
int my_machine_int;

Floating point numbers¶

IEEE 754 floating point registers may be declared with float[size] name;, where float[64] would indicate a standard double-precision float. Note that some hardware vendors may not support manipulating these values at run-time.

Similar to integers, floating-point registers can be declared with an unspecified size. The resulting precision is then set by the particular target architecture, and the unspecified-width type is different to all specified-width types for the purposes of casting.

// Declare a single-precision 32-bit float
float[32] my_float = π;
// Declare a machine-precision float.
float my_machine_float = 2.3;

Void type¶

Subroutines and externs that do not return a value implicitly return void. The void type is unrealizable and uninstantiable, and thus cannot be attached to an identifier or used as a cast operator. The keyword void is reserved for potential future use.

Angles¶

OpenQASM 3 includes a new type to represent classical angles: angle. This type is intended to make manipulations of angles more efficient at runtime, when the hardware executing the program does not have built-in support for floating-point operations. The manipulations on angle values are designed to be significantly less expensive when done using integer hardware than the equivalent software emulation of floating-point operations, by using the equivalence of angles modulo $2\pi$ to remove the need for large dynamic range.

In brief, the type angle[size] is manipulated very similarly to a single unsigned integer, where the value 1 represents an angle of $2\pi/2^{\text{size}}$, and the largest representable value is this subtracted from $2\pi$. Addition with other angles, and multiplication and division by unsigned integers is defined by standard unsigned-integer arithmetic, with more details found in the section on classical instructions.

The statement angle[size] name; statement declares a new angle called name with size bits in its representation. Angles can be assigned values using the constant π or pi, such as:

// Declare a 20-bit angle with the value of "π/2"
angle[20] my_angle = π / 2;
// Declare a machine-sized angle
angle my_machine_angle;

The bit representation of the type angle[size] is such that if angle_as_uint is the integer whose representation as a uint[size] has the same bit pattern, the value of the angle (using exact mathematical operations on the field of real numbers) would be

\[2\pi \times \frac{\text{angle_as_uint}}{2^{\text{size}}}\]

This “mathematical” value is the value used in casts from floating-point values (if available), whereas casts to and from bit[size] types reinterpret the bits directly. This means that, unless a is sufficiently small:

float[32] a;
angle[32](bit[32](uint[32](a))) != angle[32](a)

Explicitly, the most significant bit (bit index size - 1) correpsonds to $\pi$, and the least significant bit (bit index 0) corresponds to $2^{-\text{size} + 1}\pi$. For example, with the most-significant bit on the left in the bitstrings:

angle[4] my_pi = π;  // "1000"
angle[6] my_pi_over_two = π/2;  // "010000"
angle[8] my_angle = 7 * (π / 8);  // "01110000"

Angles outside the interval $[0, 2\pi)$ are represented by their values modulo $2\pi$. Up to this modulo operation, the closest angle[size] representation of an exact mathematical value is different from the true value by at most $\epsilon\leq \pi/2^{\text{size}}$.

Complex numbers¶

Complex numbers may be declared as complex[float[size]] name, where size is the size of the IEEE-754 floating-point number used to store the real and imaginary components. Each component behaves as a float[size] type. The designator [size] can be omitted to use the default hardware float, and complex with no arguments is a synonym for complex[float].

Imaginary literals are written as a decimal-integer or floating-point literal followed by the letters im. There may be zero or more spaces or tabs between the numeric component and the im component. The type of this token is complex (its value has zero real component), and the component type is as normal given the floating-point literal, or the machine-size float if the numeric component is an integer.

The real and imaginary components of a complex number can be extracted using the builtin functions real() and imag() respectively. The output types of these functions is the component type specified in the type declaration. For example, given a declaration complex[float[64]] c; the output type of imag(c) would be float[64]. The real() and imag() functions can be used in compile-time constant expressions when called on compile-time constant values.

complex[float[64]] c;
c = 2.5 + 3.5im;
complex[float] d = 2.0+sin(π/2) + (3.1 * 5.5 im);
float d_real = real(d);  // equal to 3.0

Note

Real-world hardware may not support run-time manipulation of complex values. Consult your hardware’s documentation to determine whether these language features will be available at run time.

Warning

The OpenQASM 3.0 specification only directly permits complex numbers with floating-point component types. Individually language implementations may choose to make other component types available, but this version of the specification prescribes no portable semantics in these cases. It is possible that a later version of the OpenQASM specification will define semantics for non-float component types.

Boolean types¶

There is a Boolean type bool name; that takes values true or false. Qubit measurement results can be converted from a classical bit type to a Boolean using bool(c), where 1 will be true and 0 will be false.

bit my_bit = 0;
bool my_bool;
// Assign a cast bit to a boolean
my_bool = bool(my_bit);

Compile-time constants¶

A typed declaration of a scalar type may be modified by the const keyword, such as const int a = 1;. This defines a compile-time constant. Values of type const T may be used in all locations where a value of type T is valid. const-typed values are required when specifying the widths of types (e.g. in float[SIZE] f;, SIZE must have a const unsigned integer type). All scalar literals are const types.

// Valid statements

const uint SIZE = 32;  // Declares a compile-time unsigned integer.

qubit[SIZE] q1;  // Declares a 32-qubit register called `q1`.
int[SIZE] i1;    // Declares a signed integer called `i1` with 32 bits.


// Invalid statements

uint runtime_size = 32;
qubit[runtime_size] q2;  // Invalid; runtime_size is not a `const` type.
int[runtime_size] i2;    // Invalid for the same reason.

Identifiers whose type is const T must be initialized, and may not be assigned to in subsequent statements. The type of the result of the initialization expression for a const declaration must be const S, where S is a type that is either T or can be implicitly promoted to T.

// Valid statements

const uint u1 = 4;
const int[8] i1 = 8;
float[64] runtime_f1 = 2.0;

const uint u2 = u1;       // `u1` is of type `const uint`.
const float[32] f2 = u1;  // `const uint` is implicitly promoted to `const float[32]`.


// Invalid statements

const int[64] i2 = f2;  // `const float[32]` cannot be implicitly promoted to `const int[64]`.
const float[64] f3 = runtime_f1;  // `runtime_f1` is not `const`.

Operator expressions, e.g. a + b (addition), a[b] (bit-level indexing) and a == b (equality), and certain built-in functions acting only on const operands will be evaluated at compile time. The resulting values are of type const T, where the type T is the type of the result when acting on non-const operands.

// Valid statements

const uint[8] SIZE = 5;

const uint[16] u1 = 2 * SIZE;  // Compile-time value 10.
const float[64] f1 = 5.0 * SIZE;  // Compile-time value 25.0.
const bit b1 = u1[1];  // Compile-time value `"1"`.
const bit[SIZE - 1] b2 = u1[0:3];  // Compile-time value `"1010"`.

The resultant type of a cast to type T is const T if the input value has a type const S, where values of type S can be cast to type T. If S cannot be cast to T, the expression is invalid. The cast operator does not contain the keyword const.

// Valid statements

const float[64] f1 = 2.5;
uint[8] runtime_u = 7;

const int[8] i1 = int[8](f1);  // `i1` has compile-time value 2.
const uint u1 = 2 * uint(f1);  // `u1` has compile-time value 4.


// Invalid statements

const bit[2] b1 = bit[2](f1);  // `float[64]` cannot be cast to `bit[2]`.
const int[16] i2 = int[16](runtime_u);  // Casting runtime values is not `const`.

The resultant type of any expression involving a value that is not const is not const. The output type of a call to a subroutine defined by a def, or a call to a subroutine linked by an extern statement is not const. In these cases, values of type const T are converted to type T (which has no runtime cost and no effect on the value), then evaluation continues as usual.

// Valid statements

int[8] runtime_i1 = 4;

def f(int[8] a) -> int[8] {
   return a;
}


// Invalid statements

const int[8] i2 = 2 * runtime_i1;
// Initialization expression has type `int[8]`, not `const int[8]`.
const int[8] i3 = f(runtime_i1);
// User-defined function calls do not propagate `const` values.

Built-in constants¶

Six identifiers are automatically defined in the global scope at the beginning of all OpenQASM 3 programs. There are two identifiers for each of the mathematical constants $\pi$, $\tau = 2\pi$ and Euler’s number $e$. Each of these values has one ASCII-only identifier and one single-Unicode-character identifier.

Table 1 [tab:real-constants] Built-in real constants in OpenQASM3 of type `float[64]`.¶
Constant	ASCII	Unicode	Approximate Base 10
$\pi$	pi	π	3.1415926535…
$\tau = 2\pi$	tau	τ	6.283185…
Euler’s number $e$	euler	ℇ	2.7182818284…

Built-in constant expression functions¶

The following identifiers are compile-time functions that take const inputs and have a const output. The normal implicit casting rules apply to the inputs of these functions.

Note

These functions may not be available for use on runtime values; consult your compiler and hardware documentation for details.

Table 2 Built-in mathematical functions in OpenQASM3.¶
Function	Input Range/Type, […]	Output Range/Type	Notes
arccos	`float` on $[-1, 1]$	`float` on $[0, \pi]$	Inverse cosine.
arcsin	`float` on $[-1, 1]$	`float` on $[-\pi/2, \pi/2]$	Inverse sine.
arctan	`float`	`float` on $[-\pi/2, \pi/2]$	Inverse tangent.
ceiling	`float`	`float`	Round to the nearest representable integer equal or greater in value.
cos	(`float` or `angle`)	`float`	Cosine.
exp	`float` `complex`	`float` `complex`	Exponential $e^x$.
floor	`float`	`float`	Round to the nearest representable integer equal or lesser in value.
log	`float`	`float`	Logarithm base $e$.
mod	`int`, `int` `float`, `float`	`int` `float`	Modulus. The remainder from the integer division of the first argument by the second argument.
popcount	`bit[_]`	`uint`	Number of set (1) bits.
pow	`int`, `uint` `float`, `float` `complex`, `complex`	`int` `float` `complex`	$\texttt{pow(a, b)} = a^b$. For floating-point and complex values, the principal value is returned.
rotl	`bit[n] value`, `int distance` `uint[n] value`, `int distance`	`bit[n]` `uint[n]`	Rotate the bits in the representation of `value` by `distance` places to the left (towards higher indices). This is similar to a bit shift operation, except the vacated bits are filled from the overflow, rather than being set to zero. The width of the output is set equal to the width of the input. `rotl(a, n) == rotr(a, -n)`.
rotr	`bit[n] value`, `int distance` `uint[n] value`, `int distance`	`bit[n]` `uint[n]`	Rotate the bits in the representation of `value` by `distance` places to the right (towards lower indices).
sin	(`float` or `angle`)	`float`	Sine.
sqrt	`float` `complex`	`float` `complex`	Square root. This always returns the principal root.
tan	(`float` or `angle`)	`float`	Tangent.

For each built-in function, the chosen overload is the first one to appear in the list above where all given operands can be implicitly cast to the valid input types. The output type is not considered when choosing an overload. It is an error if there is no valid overload for a given sequence of operands.

// Valid statements.

const float[64] f1 = 2.5;
const int[8] i1 = 4;
const uint[4] u1 = 3;
const bit[8] b1 = "0010_1010";
const complex[float[64]] c1 = 1.0 + 2.0im;

const float[64] f2 = 2.0 * exp(f1);
const float[64] f3 = exp(i1);
// The ``float -> float`` overload of ``exp`` is chosen in both of these
// cases; in the first, there is an exact type match, in the second the
// ``int[8]`` input can be implicitly promoted to ``float``.

const int[8] i2 = pow(i1, u1);
// Value 64, expression has type `const int`.  The first overload of `pow`
// is chosen, because `i1` can be implicitly promoted to `const int` and
// `u1` to `const uint`.

const float[64] f4 = pow(i1, -2);
// Value 0.0625, expression has type `const float`.  The second,
// `(float, float) -> float`, overload is chosen, because `-2` (type
// `const int`) cannot be implicitly promoted to `const uint`, but both
// input types can be implicitly promoted to `float`.  The `complex` overload
// is not attempted, because it has lower priority.

const bit[8] b2 = rotl(b1, 3);
// Value "0101_0001", expression has type `const bit[8]`.


// Invalid statements.

const complex[float[64]] c2 = mod(c1, 2);
// No valid overload is possible; the first given operand has type
// `const complex[float[64]]`, which cannot be implicitly promoted to
// `int` or `float`.

Literals¶

There are five types of literals in OpenQASM 3, integer, float, boolean, bit string, and timing. These literals have const types.

Integer literals can be written in decimal without a prefix, or as a hex, octal, or binary number, as denoted by a leading 0x/0X, 0o, or 0b/0B prefix. Non-consecutive underscores _ may be inserted between the first and last digit of the literal to improve readability for large values.

int i1 = 1; // decimal
int i2 = 0xff; // hex
int i3 = 0xffff_ffff // hex with _ for readability
int i4 = 0XBEEF; // uppercase HEX
int i5 = 0o73; // octal
int i6 = 0b1101; // binary
int i7 = 0B0110_1001; // uppercase B binary with _ for readability
int i8 = 1_000_000 // 1 million with _ for readability

Float literals contain either

one or more digits followed by a . and zero or more digits,
a . followed by one or more digits.

In addition, scientific notation can be used with a signed or unsigned integer exponent.

float f1 = 1.0;
float f2 = .1; // leading dot
float f3 = 0.; // trailing dot
float f4 = 2e10; // scientific
float f5 = 2e+1; // scientific with positive signed exponent
float f6 = 2.0E-1; // uppercase scientific with signed exponent

The two boolean literals are true and false.

Bit string literals are denoted by double quotes " surrounding a number of zero and one digits, and may include non-consecutive underscores to improve readability for large strings.

bit[8] b1 = "00010001";
bit[8] b2 = "0001_0001"; // underscore for readability

Timing literals are float or integer literals with a unit of time. ns, μs, us, ms, and s are used for SI time units. dt is a backend-dependent unit equivalent to one waveform sample.

duration one_second = 1000ms;
duration thousand_cycles = 1000dt;

Arrays¶

Statically-sized arrays of values can be created and initialized, and individual elements can be accessed, using the following general syntax:

array[int[32], 5] myArray = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4};
array[float[32], 3, 2] multiDim = {{1.1, 1.2}, {2.1, 2.2}, {3.1, 3.2}};

int[32] firstElem = myArray[0]; // 0
int[32] lastElem = myArray[4]; // 4
int[32] alsoLastElem = myArray[-1]; // 4
float[32] firstLastElem = multiDim[0, 1]; // 1.2
float[32] lastLastElem = multiDim[2, 1]; // 3.2
float[32] alsoLastLastElem = multiDim[-1, -1]; // 3.2

myArray[4] = 10; // myArray == {0, 1, 2, 3, 10}
multiDim[0, 0] = 0.0; // multiDim == {{0.0, 1.2}, {2.1, 2.2}, {3.1, 3.2}}
multiDim[-1, 1] = 0.0; // multiDim == {{0.0, 1.2}, {2.1, 2.2}, {3.1, 0.0}}

The first argument to the array declaration is the base type of the array. The supported classical types include various sizes of bit, int, uint, float, complex, and angle, as well as bool and duration. Note that stretch is not a valid array base type.

Arrays cannot be resized or reshaped. Arrays are statically typed, and cannot implicitly convert to or from any other type.

The size of an array is constant and immutable, and is recorded once, at declaration time.

Array declarations allocate memory of suitable size and alignment to accommodate the storage of its elements.

If the array declaration is direct-initialized via initializer list, its elements are initialized to the values provided by the initializer list. Otherwise, the memory allocated is not initialized, and that memory’s content is undefined.

Arrays may be passed as parameters or arguments to functions.

When an array, or slice of an array, is passed as argument to a function, the behavior accords to that described in Arrays in subroutines.

Arrays cannot be declared inside the body of a function or gate. All arrays must be declared within the global scope of the program. Indexing of arrays is n-based i.e., negative indices are allowed. The index -1 means the last element of the array, -2 is the second to last, and so on, with -n being the first element of an n-element array. Multi-dimensional arrays (as in the example above) are allowed, with a maximum of 7 total dimensions. The subscript operator [] is used for element access, and for multi-dimensional arrays subarray accesses can be specified using a comma-delimited list of indices (e.g. myArr[1, 2, 3]), with the outer dimension specified first.

For interoperability, the standard ways of declaring quantum registers and bit registers are equivalent to the array syntax version (i.e. qubit[5] q1; is the same as array[qubit, 5] q1;). Assignment to elements of arrays, as in the examples above, acts as expected, with the left-hand side of the assignment operating as a reference, thereby updating the values inside the original array. For multi-dimensional arrays, the shape and type of the assigned value must match that of the reference.

array[int[8], 3] aa;
array[int[8], 4, 3] bb;

bb[0] = aa; // all of aa is copied to first element of bb
bb[0, 1] = aa[2] // last element of aa is copied to one element of bb

bb[0] = 1 // error - shape mismatch

Arrays may be passed to subroutines and externs. For more details, see Arrays in subroutines.

Aliasing¶

The let keyword allows declared quantum bits and registers to be referred to by another name as long as the alias is in scope.

qubit[5] q;
// myreg[0] refers to the qubit q[1]
let myreg = q[1:4];

Note that physical qubits are not declared and so cannot be aliased.

Index sets and slicing¶

Register concatenation and slicing¶

Two or more registers of the same type (i.e. classical or quantum) can be concatenated to form a register of the same type whose size is the sum of the sizes of the individual registers. The concatenated register is a reference to the bits or qubits of the original registers. The statement a ++ b denotes the concatenation of registers a and b. A register cannot be concatenated with any part of itself.

Classical and quantum registers can be indexed in a way that selects a subset of (qu)bits, i.e. by an index set. A register so indexed is interpreted as a register of the same type but with a different size. The register slice is a reference to the original register. A register cannot be indexed by an empty index set.

Similarly, classical arrays can be indexed using index sets. See Array concatenation and slicing.

An index set can be specified by a single integer (signed or unsigned), a comma-separated list of integers contained in braces {a,b,c,…}, or a range. Ranges are written as a:b or a:c:b where a, b, and c are integers (signed or unsigned). The range corresponds to the set $\{a, a+c, a+2c, \dots, a+mc\}$ where $m$ is the largest integer such that $a+mc\leq b$ if $c>0$ and $a+mc\geq b$ if $c<0$. If $a=b$ then the range corresponds to $\{a\}$. Otherwise, the range is the empty set. If $c$ is not given, it is assumed to be one, and $c$ cannot be zero. Note the index sets can be defined by variables whose values may only be known at run time.

qubit[2] one;
qubit[10] two;
// Aliased register of twelve qubits
let concatenated = one ++ two;
// First qubit in aliased qubit array
let first = concatenated[0];
// Last qubit in aliased qubit array
let last = concatenated[-1];
// Qubits zero, three and five
let qubit_selection = two[{0, 3, 5}];
// First seven qubits in aliased qubit array
let sliced = concatenated[0:6];
// Every second qubit
let every_second = concatenated[0:2:12];
// Using negative ranges to take the last 3 elements
let last_three = two[-4:-1];
// Concatenate two alias in another one
let both = sliced ++ last_three;

Classical value bit slicing¶

A subset of classical values (int, uint, and angle) may be accessed at the bit level using index sets similar to register slicing. The bit slicing operation always returns a bit array of size equal to the size of the index set.

int[32] myInt = 15; // 0xF or 0b1111
bit[1] lastBit = myInt[0]; // 1
bit[1] signBit = myInt[31]; // 0
bit[1] alsoSignBit = myInt[-1]; // 0

bit[16] evenBits = myInt[0:2:31]; // 3
bit[16] upperBits = myInt[-16:-1];
bit[16] upperReversed = myInt[-1:-16];

myInt[4:7] = "1010"; // myInt == 0xAF

Bit-level access is still possible with elements of arrays. It is suggested that multi-dimensional access be done using the comma-delimited version of the subscript operator to reduce confusion. With this convention nearly all instances of multiple subscripts [][] will be bit-level accesses of array elements.

array[int[32], 5] intArr = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4};
// Access bit 0 of element 0 of intArr and set it to 1
intArr[0][0] = 1;
// lowest 5 bits of intArr[4] copied to b
bit[5] b = intArr[4][0:4];

Array concatenation and slicing¶

Two or more classical arrays of the same fundamental type can be concatenated to form an array of the same type whose size is the sum of the sizes of the individual arrays. Unlike with qubit registers, this operation copies the contents of the input arrays to form the new (larger) array. This means that arrays can be concatenated with themselves. However, the array concatenation operator is forbidden to be used directly in the argument list of a subroutine or extern call. If a concatenated array is to be passed to a subroutine then it should be explicitly declared and assigned the concatenation.

array[int[8], 2] first = {0, 1};
array[int[8], 3] second = {2, 3, 4};

array[int[8], 5] concat = first ++ second;
array[int[8], 4] selfConcat = first ++ first;

array[int[8], 2] secondSlice = second[1:2]; // {3, 4}

// slicing with assignment
second[1:2] = first[0:1]; // second == {2, 0, 1}

array[int[8], 4] third = {5, 6, 7, 8};
// combined slicing and concatenation
selfConcat[0:3] = first[0:1] ++ third[1:2];
// selfConcat == {0, 1, 6, 7}

subroutine_call(first ++ third) // forbidden
subroutine_call(selfConcat) // allowed

Arrays can be sliced just like quantum registers using a range a:b:c and can be indexed using an integer but cannot be indexed by a a comma-separated list of integers contained in braces {a,b,c,…}. Slicing uses the subscript operator [], but produces an array (or reference in the case of assignment) with the same number of dimensions as the given identifier. Array slicing is syntactic sugar for concisely expressing for loops over multi-dimensional arrays. For sliced assignments, as with non-sliced assignments, the shapes and types of the slices must match.

int[8] scalar;
array[int[8], 2] oneD;
array[int[8], 3, 2] twoD; // 3x2
array[int[8], 3, 2] anotherTwoD; // 3x2
array[int[8], 4, 3, 2] threeD; // 4x3x2
array[int[8], 2, 3, 4] anotherThreeD; // 2x3x4

threeD[0, 0, 0] = scalar; // allowed
threeD[0, 0] = oneD; // allowed
threeD[0] = twoD; // allowed

threeD[0] = oneD; // error - shape mismatch
threeD[0, 0] = scalar // error - shape mismatch
threeD = anotherThreeD // error - shape mismatch

twoD[1:2] = anotherTwoD[0:1]; // allowed
twoD[1:2, 0] = anotherTwoD[0:1, 1]; // allowed

Casting specifics¶

The classical types are divided into the ‘standard’ classical types (bool, int, uint, float, and complex) that exist in languages like C, and the ‘special’ classical types (bit, angle, duration, and stretch) that do not. The standard types follow rules that mimic those of C99 for promotion and conversion in mixed expressions and assignments.

If values with two different types are used as the operands of a binary operation, the lesser of the two types is cast to the greater of the two. All complex are greater than all float, and all complex and all float are greater than all int or uint. Within each level of complex and float, types with greater width are greater than types with lower width. For more information, see the usual arithmetic conversions in C.

The rules for rank of integer conversions mimic those of C99. For more, see integer promotions, and integer conversions.

Standard and special classical types may only mix in expressions with operators defined for those mixed types, otherwise explicit casts must be provided, unless otherwise noted (such as for assigning float values or expressions to angles). Additionally, angle values will be implicitly promoted or converted in the same manner as unsigned integers when mixed with or assigned to angle values with differing precision.

In general, for any cast between standard types that results in loss of precision, if the source value is larger than can be represented in the target type, the exact behavior is implementation specific and must be documented by the vendor.

Allowed casts¶

	Casting To
Casting From	bool	int	uint	float	angle	bit	duration	qubit
bool	-	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
int	Yes	-	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
uint	Yes	Yes	-	Yes	No	Yes	No	No
float	Yes	Yes	Yes	-	Yes	No	No	No
angle	Yes	No	No	No	-	Yes	No	No
bit	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	Yes	-	No	No
duration	No	No	No	No*	No	No	-	No
qubit	No	No	No	No	No	No	No	-

*Note: duration values can be converted to float using the division operator. See Converting duration to other types

Casting from bool¶

bool values cast from false to 0.0 and from true to 1.0 or an equivalent representation. bool values can only be cast to bit[1] (a single bit), so explicit index syntax must be given if the target bit has more than 1 bit of precision.

Casting from int/uint¶

int[n] and uint[n] values cast to the standard types mimicking C99 behavior. Casting to bool values follows the convention val != 0. As noted above, if the value is too large to be represented in the target type the result is implementation-specific. However, casting between int[n] and uint[n] is expected to preserve the bit ordering, specifically it should be the case that x == int[n](uint[n](x)) and vice versa. Casting to bit[m] is only allowed when m==n. If the target bit has more or less precision, then explicit slicing syntax must be given. As noted, the conversion is done assuming a little-endian 2’s complement representation.

Casting from float¶

float[n] values cast to the standard types mimicking C99 behavior (e.g. discarding the fractional part for integer-type targets). As noted above, if the value is too large to be represented in the target type the result is implementation-specific.

Casting a float[n] value to an angle[m] involves finding the nearest representable value modulo $\text{float}_n(2\pi)$, where ties between two possible representations are resolved by choosing to have zero in the least-significant bit (i.e. round to nearest, ties to even). Casting the floating-point values inf, -inf and all representations of NaN to angle[m] is not defined.

For example, given the double-precision floating-point value:

// The closest double-precision representation of 2*pi.
const float[64] two_pi = 6.283185307179586
// For double precision, we have
//   (two_pi * (127./512.)) / two_pi == (127./512.)
// exactly.
float[64] f = two_pi * (127. / 512.)

the result of the cast angle[8](f) should have the bitwise representation "01000000" (which represents the exact angle $2\pi\cdot\frac{64}{256} = \frac\pi2$), despite "00111111" ($2\pi\cdot\frac{63}{256}$) being equally close, because of the round-to-nearest ties-to-even behaviour.

Casting from angle¶

angle[n] values cast to bool using the convention val != 0. Casting to bit[m] values is only allowed when n==m, otherwise explicit slicing syntax must be provided. When casting to bit[m], the value is a direct copy of the bit pattern using the same little-endian ordering as described above.

When casting between angles of differing precisions (n!=m): if the target has more significant bits, then the value is padded with m-n least significant bits of 0; if the target has fewer significant bits, then there are two acceptable behaviors that can be supported by compilers: rounding and truncation. For rounding the value is rounded to the nearest value, with ties going to the value with the even least significant bit. Trunction is likely to have more hardware support. This behavior can be controlled by the use of a #pragma.

Casting from bit¶

bit[n] values cast to bool using the convention val != 0. Casting to int[m] or uint[m] is done assuming a little endian 2’s complement representation, and is only allowed when n==m, otherwise explicit slicing syntax must be given. Likewise, bit[n] can only be cast to angle[m] when n==m, in which case an exact per-bit copy is done using little-endian bit order. Finally, casting between bits of differing precisions is not allowed, explicit slicing syntax must be given.

Converting duration to other types¶

Casting from or to duration values is not allowed, however, operations on durations that produce values of different types is allowed. For example, dividing a duration by a duration produces a machine-precision float.

duration one_ns = 1ns;
duration a = 500ns;
float a_in_ns = a / one_ns;  // 500.0

duration one_s = 1s;
float a_in_s = a / one_s; // 5e-7

Types and Casting¶

Identifiers¶

Variables¶

Quantum types¶

Qubits¶

Physical Qubits¶

Physical qubit constraints¶

Classical scalar types¶

Classical bits and registers¶

Integers¶

Floating point numbers¶

Void type¶

Angles¶

Complex numbers¶

Boolean types¶

Compile-time constants¶

Built-in constants¶

Built-in constant expression functions¶

Literals¶

Arrays¶

Aliasing¶

Index sets and slicing¶

Register concatenation and slicing¶

Classical value bit slicing¶

Array concatenation and slicing¶

Casting specifics¶

Allowed casts¶

Casting from bool¶

Casting from int/uint¶

Casting from float¶

Casting from angle¶

Casting from bit¶

Converting duration to other types¶

OpenQASM 3.1 Specification

Navigation

Related Topics

Constant	ASCII	Unicode	Approximate Base 10
\(\pi\)	pi	π	3.1415926535…
\(\tau = 2\pi\)	tau	τ	6.283185…
Euler’s number \(e\)	euler	ℇ	2.7182818284…

Function	Input Range/Type, […]	Output Range/Type	Notes
arccos	`float` on \([-1, 1]\)	`float` on \([0, \pi]\)	Inverse cosine.
arcsin	`float` on \([-1, 1]\)	`float` on \([-\pi/2, \pi/2]\)	Inverse sine.
arctan	`float`	`float` on \([-\pi/2, \pi/2]\)	Inverse tangent.
ceiling	`float`	`float`	Round to the nearest representable integer equal or greater in value.
cos	(`float` or `angle`)	`float`	Cosine.
exp	`float` `complex`	`float` `complex`	Exponential \(e^x\).
floor	`float`	`float`	Round to the nearest representable integer equal or lesser in value.
log	`float`	`float`	Logarithm base \(e\).
mod	`int`, `int` `float`, `float`	`int` `float`	Modulus. The remainder from the integer division of the first argument by the second argument.
popcount	`bit[_]`	`uint`	Number of set (1) bits.
pow	`int`, `uint` `float`, `float` `complex`, `complex`	`int` `float` `complex`	\(\texttt{pow(a, b)} = a^b\). For floating-point and complex values, the principal value is returned.
rotl	`bit[n] value`, `int distance` `uint[n] value`, `int distance`	`bit[n]` `uint[n]`	Rotate the bits in the representation of `value` by `distance` places to the left (towards higher indices). This is similar to a bit shift operation, except the vacated bits are filled from the overflow, rather than being set to zero. The width of the output is set equal to the width of the input. `rotl(a, n) == rotr(a, -n)`.
rotr	`bit[n] value`, `int distance` `uint[n] value`, `int distance`	`bit[n]` `uint[n]`	Rotate the bits in the representation of `value` by `distance` places to the right (towards lower indices).
sin	(`float` or `angle`)	`float`	Sine.
sqrt	`float` `complex`	`float` `complex`	Square root. This always returns the principal root.
tan	(`float` or `angle`)	`float`	Tangent.

Types and Casting¶

Identifiers¶

Variables¶

Quantum types¶

Qubits¶

Physical Qubits¶

Physical qubit constraints¶

Classical scalar types¶

Classical bits and registers¶

Integers¶

Floating point numbers¶

Void type¶

Angles¶

Complex numbers¶

Boolean types¶

Compile-time constants¶

Built-in constants¶

Built-in constant expression functions¶

Literals¶

Arrays¶

Types related to timing¶

Duration¶

Stretch¶

Aliasing¶

Index sets and slicing¶

Register concatenation and slicing¶

Classical value bit slicing¶

Array concatenation and slicing¶

Casting specifics¶

Allowed casts¶

Casting from bool¶

Casting from int/uint¶

Casting from float¶

Casting from angle¶

Casting from bit¶

Converting duration to other types¶